1. Unraveling the Mystery of the Higgs Boson 2. Discovering the Higgs Boson 3. The Quest for the Higgs Boson 4. Understanding Mass in Particles with the Higgs Field 5. How Particles Gain Mass: Ex

Question: Science This passage is adapted from Natalie Wolchover’s “What Is the Higgs Boson?” originally published in Quanta Magazine, an editorially independent online publication supported by the Simons Foundation. In 1964, the British physicist Peter Higgs wrote a landmark paper hypothesizing why elementary particles have mass. He predicted the existence of a three-dimensional “field” that permeates space and drags on everything that trudges through it. Some particles have more trouble traversing the field than others, and this corresponds to them being heavier. If the field—later dubbed the Higgs field—really exists, then Higgs said it must have a particle associated with it: the Higgs boson. Fast forward 48 years: on Wednesday (July 4), physicists at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the world’s largest atom smasher in Geneva, Switzerland, announced they had discovered a Higgs-like particle at long last. If the new particle turns out to be the Higgs, it will confirm nearly five decades of particle physics theory, which incorporated the Higgs boson into the family of known particles and equations that describe them, known as the Standard Model. The search for the Higgs gained a level of public attention unusual for physics, partly thanks to the physicist Leon Lederman’s 1993 book The God Particle. Lederman gave the Higgs its godly nickname because, as he wrote in the book, the particle is “so central to the state of physics today, so crucial to our final understanding of the structure of matter, yet so elusive.” Indeed, the Higgs boson eluded detection through the construction and shutdown of two expensive high-energy particle colliders built partially for the purpose of detecting it. In these colliders, particles are accelerated through a tunnel and then smashed together, producing an excess of energy that sometimes takes the form of new and exotic particles. Only the Large Hadron Collider at CERN Laboratory, the most powerful particle collider ever built, turned out to probe energies high enough to generate a Higgs particle, which is roughly 125 times the mass of a proton. But what does the Higgs particle actually do? How does it, and the Higgs field associated with it, give things mass? In physics, when particles interact with fields, the interaction must be mediated by a particle. Interactions with the electromagnetic (EM) field, for example, are mediated by photons, or particles of light. When a negatively charged electron is pulled by the EM field toward a positively charged proton, the electron experiences the EM field by absorbing and emitting a constant stream of “virtual photons”—photons that momentarily pop in and out of existence just for the purpose of mediating the particle-field interaction. Furthermore, when the EM field is “excited,” meaning its energy is flared up in a certain spot, that flare-up is, itself, a photon—a real one in that case. Along the same lines, the Higgs particle mediates interactions with the Higgs field, and is itself an excitation of the Higgs field. Particles are thought to trudge through the Higgs field (thereby acquiring mass) by exchanging virtual Higgs particles with it. And, the thinking goes, a real Higgs particle surfaces when the field becomes excited, flaring up with energy in a certain spot. Detecting such a flare-up (i.e. the particle) is how physicists can be sure the field itself exists. At the LHC, they managed to bash atoms together hard enough to generate, for a fleeting instant, a 125 giga-electron-volt excitation of what was likely the Higgs field. The flare-up had all the trappings of a Higgs boson. Licensed under CC BY-ND, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode. This passage has been excerpted and adapted from the original, including minor punctuation changes, spelling changes, and other modifications that have not substantially changed content or intent. The Higgs Mechanism The figure above shows the Higgs mechanism. Source: https://www.dreamstime.org The passage implies that the scientists were able to obtain evidence of the Higgs boson by Not Answered A) utilizing a more powerful microscope than ever before. B) measuring trace elements of photons and electrons in the Large Hadron Collider. C) first trying to manufacture conditions that would lead to a Higgs field. D) using theoretical models to prove the probable existence of the particle. Which lines in the passage best support the answer to the previous question? Not Answered A) Paragraph 3, Sentence 1 (“The search . . . Particle”) B) Paragraph 4, Sentence 1 (“Indeed . . . it”) C) Paragraph 6, Sentence 3 (“And . . . spot”) D) Paragraph 6, Sentence 5 (“At the . . . field”) Which of the following is one of the main troubles the author discusses about research on the Higgs boson? Not Answered A) Most researchers dismiss theories about the Higgs boson. B) The Higgs boson is extremely difficult to detect. C) Public funding for physics research has substantially declined. D) International cooperation on scientific research is low. The passage begins with a discussion of British physicist Peter Higgs in order to Not Answered A) provide an anecdote about the power of science before discussing the more specific topic at hand. B) introduce the researcher who finally helped researchers demonstrate the existence of the Higgs boson. C) state a thesis about Peter Higgs’s life, which the author will spend the rest of the passage defending. D) illustrate the history behind the development of theories about the mystery particle. The passage indicates that, compared to other particle accelerators, the Large Hadron Collider was Not Answered A) more powerful. B) less expensive. C) more famous. D) less accurate. The passage suggests that the public viewed the Higgs boson with Not Answered A) bland indifference, due to the long process of discovery. B) strong skepticism, given the lack of scientific research to support it. C) unusual attention, due to popular writing on the subject. D) great fear, given the dangers of using the Large Hadron Collider. In Paragraph 2, Sentence 1, the phrase “at long last” is used to indicate that Not Answered A) researchers had finally made a key discovery about the particle. B) scientists had amassed a large amount of data about the particle. C) the Higgs boson was much larger than previously anticipated. D) the discovery of the Higgs boson was a permanent achievement. The graphic associated with the passage indicates that Not Answered A) Higgs bosons have no mass and low energy. B) quarks have high mass and high energy. C) electrons have high mass and low energy. D) photons have no mass and high energy. CERN Laboratory : Geneva, Switzerland :: Not Answered A) Higgs field : Large Hadron Collider B) Higgs field : photon C) Large Hadron Collider : CERN Laboratory D) Leon Lederman : The God Particle Higgs field becomes excited : real Higgs particle surfaces :: Not Answered A) The God Particle book is published : Higgs search gains public attention B) Higgs field : Large Hadron Collider C) Leon Lederman : The God Particle book is published D) Large Hadron Collider : particle collider Philosophy/Religion This passage is adapted from John Henry Newman’s “On the Miracles of Scripture,” written in 1825-1826. A miracle may be considered as an event inconsistent with the constitution of nature, that is, with the established course of things in which it is found. It does not necessarily imply a violation of nature, as some have supposed, but merely the interposition of an external cause. It may often be difficult exactly to draw the line between uncommon and miraculous events. Thus, the production of ice might have seemed at first sight miraculous to some tropical cultures, for it was a phenomenon that didn’t seem to follow the laws of nature typically found in tropical climates. Such, again, might magnetic attraction appear in ages familiar only with the attraction of gravity. On the other hand, the extraordinary works of Moses or St. Paul1 appear miraculous, even when referred to those simple laws of nature that the widest experience has confirmed. In proof of miraculous occurrences, we must have the same kind of evidence as that by which we determine the truth of historical accounts in general. For though miracles, in consequence of their extraordinary nature, require a fuller and more accurate investigation, still they do not require an investigation conducted on different principles—testimony being the main medium of proof for past events of any kind. And this being indisputable, it is almost equally so that the Christian Miracles are attested by evidence even stronger than can be produced for any of those historical facts which we most firmly believe. This has been felt by unbelievers who have been, in consequence, led to deny the admissibility of even the strongest testimony if offered in behalf of miraculous events and thus to get rid of the only means by which they can be proved to have taken place. It has accordingly been asserted that all events inconsistent with the course of nature bear such strong and decisive marks of falsehood and absurdity, that it is needless to examine the evidence for them. “Where men are heated by zeal and enthusiasm,” says Hume, with a distant but evident allusion to the Christian Miracles, “there is no degree of human testimony so strong as may not be procured for the greatest absurdity, and those who will be so silly as to examine the affair by that medium and seek particular flaws in the testimony are almost sure to be confounded.” Of these objections, which are supposed to decide the question, the most popular is founded on the frequent occurrence of wonderful tales in every age and country—generally, too, connected with religion. Since the more we are in a situation to examine these accounts, the more fabulous they are proved to be, there would certainly be a fair presumption against the Scripture narrative, did it resemble them in its circumstances and proposed object. A more refined argument is that advanced by Hume, in the first part of his “Essay On Miracles,” in which it is maintained against the credibility of a Miracle, that it is more probable that the testimony should be false than that the Miracle should be true. 1 Editor’s Note: The author is referring to miraculous works attributed to Moses and St. Paul, as recorded in key Biblical texts. This passage has been excerpted and adapted from the original, including minor punctuation changes, spelling changes, and other modifications that have not substantially changed content or intent. Based on the information in the passage, which of the following could be considered a miracle? Not Answered A) The discovery of a new law of physics on magnetism B) The melting of ice after a long winter in Maine C) The beliefs of Christian saints about salvation D) The reversal of decay on a molding sandwich Which lines in the passage provide the best evidence in support of the answer to the previous question? Not Answered A) Paragraph 1, Sentence 1 (“A miracle . . . found”) B) Paragraph 2, Sentence 1 (“It may . . . events”) C) Paragraph 2, Sentence 2 (“Thus . . . climates”) D) Paragraph 3, Sentence 1 (“In proof . . . general”) Compared to the analysis of historical accounts, the author indicates that the analysis of accounts of miracles requires Not Answered A) a more principled investigation. B) a more robust investigation. C) a more open mind. D) a more varied catalogue of evidence. The author of the passage aims primarily to Not Answered A) define miracles and how they should be assessed. B) explain how ordinary events are mistaken for miracles. C) assess major philosophers’ views on miracles. D) argue that Christian miracles are often misrepresented. Based on the passage, the author Not Answered A) disagrees with Hume on the necessity of evidence for miracles. B) agrees with Hume on the unreliability of eyewitness testimony. C) disagrees with Hume on the credibility of Christian miracles. D) agrees with Hume on the absurdity of Christian miracles. In Paragraph 6, Sentence 1, the word “founded” most closely means Not Answered A) located. B) created. C) based. D) originated. According to the passage, wondrous tales in other times and cultures generally Not Answered A) do not hold up to scrutiny. B) are almost identical to Christian tales. C) prove difficult to find. D) have strong and reliable testimony. The author concludes the passage with Not Answered A) a personal anecdote. B) a scientific inquiry. C) an opposing viewpoint. D) a supporting perspective. uncommon event : miraculous event :: Not Answered A) works of Moses : production of ice in tropical cultures B) production of ice in tropical cultures : magnetic attraction C) works of Moses : works of St. Paul D) production of ice in tropical cultures : works of Moses testimony : miracle :: Not Answered A) eyewitness : truth B) diary entry : past event C) crime : proof D) credibility : disbelief Historical/Founding Documents Passage 1 is adapted from Procopius’s The Secret History, written in AD 550. Passage 2 is adapted from Thomas Aquinas’s On Kingship, first published in AD 1267. Passage 1 So then, the Romans being at peace with the whole world, and he by reason of his lust for blood not knowing what to do with himself, Justinian kept bringing all the barbarians into collision with one another. And these then began straightway to enslave the Roman Empire, and they nevertheless were receiving pay in the meantime from the Emperor; and after these, others promptly took over the business of plundering the hapless Romans, and after the pillage they would receive, as rewards for the attack, the Emperor’s generous gifts. And while he was stirring up the evils of faction and of war for the Romans and fanning the flames, with the one thought in mind that the earth should by many a device be filled with human blood and that he should plunder more money, he contrived another massacre of his subjects on a large scale, in the following manner. There are in the whole Roman Empire many rejected doctrines of the Christians, which they are accustomed to call “heresies”—those of the Montani, the Sabbatiani, and all the others which are wont to cause the judgment of man to go astray. All these heretics he commanded to change their earlier beliefs, threatening many things in case of their disobedience, and in particular that it would be impossible for them in the future to hand down their property to their children or other relatives. And many persons, and that too of the orthodox faith, excusing themselves by the occupations in which they were engaged, always depended upon the property of these sects for the means of their livelihood. So the Emperor Justinian began by confiscating the properties of these sanctuaries, thus stripping them suddenly of all their wealth. From this it came about that thereafter most of them were cut off from their livelihood. Passage 2 Having set forth these preliminary points we must now inquire what is better for a province or a city: whether to be ruled by one man or by many. This question may be considered first from the viewpoint of the purpose of government. The aim of any ruler should be directed towards securing the welfare of that which he undertakes to rule. Now the welfare and safety of a multitude formed into a society lies in the preservation of its unity, which is called peace. If this is removed, the benefit of social life is lost and, moreover, the multitude in its disagreement becomes a burden to itself. The chief concern of the ruler of a multitude, therefore, is to procure the unity of peace . . . Thus, the more efficacious a government is in keeping the unity of peace, the more useful it will be. For we call that more useful which leads more directly to the end. Now it is manifest that what is itself one can more efficaciously bring about unity than several. Therefore the rule of one man is more useful than the rule of many. Again, whatever is in accord with nature is best, for in all things nature does what is best. Now, every natural governance is governance by one. In the multitude of bodily members there is one which is the principal mover, namely, the heart; and among the powers of the soul one power presides as chief, namely, the reason. Among bees there is one king bee and in the whole universe there is One God, Maker and Ruler of all things. Every multitude is derived from unity. Wherefore, if artificial things are an imitation of natural things and a work of art is better according as it attains a closer likeness to what is in nature, it follows that it is best for a human multitude to be ruled by one person. These passages have been excerpted and adapted from their originals, including minor punctuation changes, spelling changes, and other modifications that have not substantially changed content or intent. The author of Passage 1 would likely blame Justinian for everything EXCEPT Not Answered A) destabilizing the Roman Empire. B) allowing Christian heresies to proliferate. C) encouraging conflict between barbaric tribes and Romans. D) financially ruining his own subjects. Which lines in Passage 1 best support the answer to the previous question? Not Answered A) Paragraph 1, Sentence 1 (“So then . . . another”) B) Paragraph 1, Sentence 2 (“And these . . . gifts”) C) Paragraph 2, Sentence 2 (“All these . . . relatives”) D) Paragraph 2, Sentence 5 (“From this . . . livelihood”) The tone of Passage 1 can be best described as Not Answered A) vitriolic. B) critical. C) disappointed. D) sardonic. In Passage 2, which of the following does Aquinas NOT cite as an example of the rule of one over many in nature? Not Answered A) The king bee over other bees B) Reason over the soul C) God over the universe D) Christ over the church In Passage 2, Paragraph 2, Sentence 5, the word “procure” most closely means Not Answered A) impose. B) extract. C) grasp. D) secure. In Passage 2, Aquinas argues that rule of one over many is best for every reason EXCEPT Not Answered A) a society ruled by one man is most likely to be peaceful. B) a government where one person rules is most useful. C) what imitates nature is best. D) one is better able to create unity than several. Over the course of Passage 2, Aquinas moves from Not Answered A) arguing that preserving peace is the purpose of government to explaining how the rule of one best accomplishes that purpose. B) defining the purpose of government to arguing why it is best for one person to rule. C) discussing one possible form of government to speculating on the benefits of that form. D) explaining the importance of unity within a society to arguing that unity is only possible in a society governed by one ruler. Which of the following best summarizes the difference in focus between Passage 1 and Passage 2? Not Answered A) Passage 1 recounts the evils of a particular emperor’s rule, while Passage 2 argues that rule of a single ruler is the best method of governance. B) Passage 1 argues that the rule of one over many leads to tyranny, while Passage 2 argues that the rule of one over many leads to stability and peace. C) Passage 1 is concerned with deposing an evil emperor, while Passage 2 is concerned with defending an emperor’s right to rule. D) Passage 1 argues that the main concern of a ruler is to suppress heresy, while Passage 2 argues that the main concern of a ruler is to preserve peace. The following analogy refers to Passage 1: Justinian : barbarians :: Not Answered A) Montoni : Roman Empire B) heretical sects : Orthodox Christians C) Orthodox Christians : heretical sects D) Sabbatiani : Justinian The following analogy refers to Passage 2: ruler : secure welfare :: Not Answered A) God : create universe B) ruler : imitate nature C) government : keep unity of peace D) government : imitate nature